Soil Structure & Compaction

AUS-AMR-LVG-SSC General Moderate confidence

Benchmark Value

500 kPa

Thresholds: Lower: —, Upper: 1500

Direction: Lower is desirable ↓

Form: MaximumOnly

Scoring Curve

This curve shows how a field measurement for this indicator would score across all available benchmark forms in this context. The scoring engine uses 13 benchmarks together — the OptimalRange form drives the primary score, while 12 guard(s) constrain the result.

Contributing Benchmarks

OptimalRange Primary MaximumOnly Guard LowerThreshold Guard MaximumOnly Guard MaximumOnly Guard MinimumOnly Guard MaximumOnly Guard MinimumOnly Guard MaximumOnly Guard OptimalRange Guard LowerThreshold Guard MinimumOnly Guard MaximumOnly Guard

Evidence & Context

Based on the GRDC diagnostic category for "Not compacted" soil, a benchmark of < 500 kPa is proposed.

Metric Definition:

Penetration resistance measured by cone penetrometer indicating soil compaction level.

Benchmark Definition:

This benchmark represents the maximum soil penetration resistance indicating a 'Not compacted' soil state typical of well-aggregated, porous soils under best-practice regenerative management in arid mountain grazing lands.

Justification:

The benchmark is derived from the lowest quantitative category ('Not compacted. Loose. < 0.50 MPa') from a diagnostic factsheet for Australian conditions. Confidence is 'Moderate' as this is a robust derivation from a credible source, but not a direct measurement from a peer-reviewed study of a best-practice site in the target biome.

Sources (1)

Preview of Overgrazing & Reducing Grazing Pressure | Bush Heritage Australia, accessed July 30, 2025,

Overgrazing & Reducing Grazing Pressure | Bush Heritage Australia, accessed July 30, 2025,

STOCK RESERVE - The Norfolk Islander, accessed July 30, 2025,

Supporting Sources (29)

Additional references from the underlying research that informed this benchmark.

Preview of AusPlots Rangelands - TERN Australia, accessed August 2, 2025

AusPlots Rangelands - TERN Australia, accessed August 2, 2025

Contextual Support Journal

AusPlots Rangelands Survey Protocols Manual

Preview of ausplotsR: quickstart guide to basic analysis of TERN AusPlots ..., accessed July 22, 2025,

ausplotsR: quickstart guide to basic analysis of TERN AusPlots ..., accessed July 22, 2025,

Contextual Support

ausplotsR: TERN AusPlots Australian Ecosystem Monitoring Data - The Comprehensive R Archive Network, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of Australian Journal of Soil Research - CSIRO Publishing, accessed July 28, 2025,

Australian Journal of Soil Research - CSIRO Publishing, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Australian Journal of Soil Research - CSIRO Publishing, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of Changes in soil physical properties under grazed pastures-Bohrium, accessed July 28, 2025,

Changes in soil physical properties under grazed pastures-Bohrium, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Changes in soil physical properties under grazed pastures-Bohrium, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of Chapter 2: Livestock grazing systems & the environment - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, accessed July 28, 2025,

Chapter 2: Livestock grazing systems & the environment - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support

Chapter 2: Livestock grazing systems & the environment - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of Compaction | VRO - Victorian Resources Online, accessed August 4, 2025,

Compaction | VRO - Victorian Resources Online, accessed August 4, 2025,

Contextual Support

3- Build and maintain soil nutrients to improve soil fertility and health in all pasture zones

Preview of Compaction | VRO - Victorian Resources Online, accessed July 28, 2025,

Compaction | VRO - Victorian Resources Online, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Soil Compaction Explained - Soil Quality Knowledge Base

Preview of Degradation and recovery processes in arid grazing lands of central ..., accessed July 28, 2025,

Degradation and recovery processes in arid grazing lands of central ..., accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support GreyLiterature

Degradation and recovery processes in arid grazing lands of central ..., accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of Do regenerative grazing management practices improve vegetation and soil health in grazed rangelands? - Great Barrier Reef Foundation, accessed July 28, 2025,

Do regenerative grazing management practices improve vegetation and soil health in grazed rangelands? - Great Barrier Reef Foundation, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support GreyLiterature

Do regenerative grazing management practices improve vegetation and soil health in grazed rangelands? - Great Barrier Reef Foundation, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of Grazing Benefits - Pasture Project, accessed July 28, 2025,

Grazing Benefits - Pasture Project, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support Government

Grazing Benefits - Pasture Project, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of Grazing management of Australian native woody regeneration as an effective nature-based climate-change solution - CSIRO Publishing, accessed July 10, 2025,

Grazing management of Australian native woody regeneration as an effective nature-based climate-change solution - CSIRO Publishing, accessed July 10, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Boom and bust for biodiversity in arid Australia

Preview of Guidelines for grazing in the Gwydir Wetlands and Macquarie Marshes, accessed July 28, 2025,

Guidelines for grazing in the Gwydir Wetlands and Macquarie Marshes, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support GreyLiterature

Hamonts, K., Bissett, A., Macdonald, B. C. T., Barton, P. S., Manning, A. D., & Young, A. (2017). Effects of ecological restoration on soil microbial diversity in a temperate grassy woodland. Applied Soil Ecology, 117-118, 117-128. 10 (Note: The specific F:B data was not available from the abstract, but the study is highly relevant for context).

Preview of Impacts of grazing systems on soil compaction and pasture production in Alberta, accessed July 28, 2025,

Impacts of grazing systems on soil compaction and pasture production in Alberta, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Long-Term Grazing Density Impacts on Soil Compaction | Request PDF - ResearchGate

Preview of Managing soils - Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, accessed July 28, 2025,

Managing soils - Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Managing soils - Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of Managing soils to keep them healthy and productive - MLA, accessed July 28, 2025,

Managing soils to keep them healthy and productive - MLA, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Soil Compaction Affects the Growth and Establishment of Street Trees in Urban Australia

Preview of Mechanical Resistance to Penetration for Improved Diagnosis of ..., accessed July 30, 2025,

Mechanical Resistance to Penetration for Improved Diagnosis of ..., accessed July 30, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Mechanical Resistance to Penetration for Improved Diagnosis of Soil Compaction at Grazing and Forest Sites - MDPI

Preview of Overgrazing & Reducing Grazing Pressure | Bush Heritage Australia, accessed July 28, 2025,

Overgrazing & Reducing Grazing Pressure | Bush Heritage Australia, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Cycling of phosphorus in grazing systems - NSW Department of Primary Industries, accessed August 5, 2025,

Preview of Protect your soil from compaction - NSW Department of Primary Industries, accessed August 4, 2025,

Protect your soil from compaction - NSW Department of Primary Industries, accessed August 4, 2025,

Contextual Support

The grazier's guide to pastures - NSW Department of Primary Industries, accessed July 24, 2025

Preview of Rangeland Grazing - Gallagher Animal Management, accessed July 28, 2025,

Rangeland Grazing - Gallagher Animal Management, accessed July 28, 2025,

Irrelevant

Rangeland Grazing - Gallagher Animal Management, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of Regenerative Agriculture—A Literature Review on the Practices and Mechanisms Used to Improve Soil Health - MDPI, accessed August 5, 2025,

Regenerative Agriculture—A Literature Review on the Practices and Mechanisms Used to Improve Soil Health - MDPI, accessed August 5, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Regenerative Agriculture—A Literature Review on the Practices and Mechanisms Used to Improve Soil Health - MDPI, accessed August 28, 2025,

Preview of Soil Bulk Density as Influenced by Grazing Intensity and Soil Type on a Shortgrass Prairie Site, accessed July 28, 2025,

Soil Bulk Density as Influenced by Grazing Intensity and Soil Type on a Shortgrass Prairie Site, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Soil Bulk Density as Influenced by Grazing Intensity and Soil Type on a Shortgrass Prairie Site, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of SOIL CARBON EDITION - North Central Catchment Management Authority, accessed July 28, 2025,

SOIL CARBON EDITION - North Central Catchment Management Authority, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support Government

Soil Compaction - Tas | Fact Sheets | soilquality.org.au

Preview of SOIL CARBON EDITION - North Central Catchment Management Authority, accessed July 6, 2025,

SOIL CARBON EDITION - North Central Catchment Management Authority, accessed July 6, 2025,

Methodology Source Journal

0524-2837-MTDC; Hand-Held Electronic Cone Penetrometers for Measuring Soil Strength page02 - Forest Service, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of Soil compaction under varying rest periods and levels of mechanical disturbance in a rotational grazing system, accessed July 28, 2025,

Soil compaction under varying rest periods and levels of mechanical disturbance in a rotational grazing system, accessed July 28, 2025,

Contextual Support

Soil compaction under varying rest periods and levels of mechanical disturbance in a rotational grazing system, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of Soil health - Penetrometer - Department for Environment and Water, accessed August 2, 2025,

Soil health - Penetrometer - Department for Environment and Water, accessed August 2, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Soil health - Department for Environment and Water, accessed July 27, 2025,

Preview of Soil health indicator sheet - Soil compaction (bulk density) - Minnesota Stormwater Manual, accessed July 30, 2025,

Soil health indicator sheet - Soil compaction (bulk density) - Minnesota Stormwater Manual, accessed July 30, 2025,

Contextual Support

Soil health indicator sheet - Soil compaction (bulk density) - Minnesota Stormwater Manual

Preview of Soil Penetration Resistance as a Soil Health Indicator - SDSU Extension - South Dakota State University, accessed August 4, 2025,

Soil Penetration Resistance as a Soil Health Indicator - SDSU Extension - South Dakota State University, accessed August 4, 2025,

Contextual Support GreyLiterature

Soil compaction and strength; measurement methods and influences on perennial grass growth.

Preview of TERN Ecosystem Surveillance: Soil Sample - TERN Data Discovery Portal, accessed July 28, 2025,

TERN Ecosystem Surveillance: Soil Sample - TERN Data Discovery Portal, accessed July 28, 2025,

Methodology Source Government

AusPlots Rangelands - TERN Australia, accessed July 28, 2025,

Preview of The relationships between land management practices and soil condition and the quality of ecosystem services delivered from agri - DAFF, accessed July 22, 2025,

The relationships between land management practices and soil condition and the quality of ecosystem services delivered from agri - DAFF, accessed July 22, 2025,

Contextual Support Journal

Maintaining groundcover to reduce erosion and sustain production - NSW Department of Primary Industries

Context

Region Australia
Biome Arid Mountain Ranges & Uplands
Land Use Livestock Grazing & Pasture
Assessment Pristine Reference
Evidence Type ReferenceCondition

Lifecycle

Status Active
Version 1
Effective From 21 Mar 2026

Notes

The upper detrimental threshold is 1500 kPa, above which root growth is restricted, indicating soil degradation.